Loss of land

In the post-United States century, there were warriors in each tribe willing to fight the American army, which generally faced overwhelming obstacles. Black Hawk, a Sauk leader who led the resistance in the Mississippi Valley in 1832; Manuelito, a Navajo leader who was active from 1863 to 1866; Lone Wolf, a Kiowa leader in the Red River War (1874-1875), which took place in the Southern Plains; and Dull Rnife, a Cheyenne leader who fought in the Central Plains and led an impressive captivity escape in Fort Robinson, Nebraska, in 1879.

The revolts led by these leaders failed, forcing the survivors to endure humiliation and pain due to their failure. Some chiefs, such as the Crazy Horse of the Sioux, continued to resist and eventually died in captivity. Others, such as Jerome, experienced a decrease in their spirit or, like the Sitting Bull and Chief Joseph, spent the rest of their lives in captivity, generally far away from their homes. Until the end, they cared for the well-being of their people, which, in the case of the Sitting Bull, cost him his life.

The leaders of the resistance keep their spirit in today’s native leaders, who are more calm but also determined. The right to live in an Aboriginal American society continues to be defended by activists such as Dermis Banks and Russell Means, as well as by administrators and politicians such as Wilma R Mankiller, an academic activist and former head of the Cherokee nation, or Nellie Cornoyea, the inuvialuk who was appointed head of government of the Canadian Northwest Territories in 1991. These leading figures seek compensation for historic losses of land and indigenous peoples, as well as securing educational and economic opportunities that contemporary American society often considers false.

Native leaders also have more power because they have political control in the same assemblies and legislatures that voted for the withdrawal, confinement and destruction of their people. In 1990, Elijah Harper, a member of the Manitoba legislature, made a decision not to approve the Meech Lake Accord, a draft that sought to modify the Canadian federal constitution to meet the demands of French-speaking Quebecers, who wanted to be considered an independent society in Canada. Harper rejected a bill that did not guarantee the same rights for the Aboriginal people of the nation.

In recent times, the reputation of spiritual leaders such as Black Eagle has grown due to the prevailing cultural trends in the predominant white society. Those who continue to maintain native traditions have also introduced Aboriginal American art to the world. Most prominent artists include Charles Edenshaw and Bill Reid, who carve in the traditional Haida style, the hopi jeweler Charles Loloma, the washo basket weaver Datsolalee, and the Inuit sculptors and printers Etungat and Kenojuak. In addition, there are many writers, actors, dancers and playwrights whose creation, sometimes with Western touches, has helped highlight the beauty, dramatism and intensity of North American Aboriginal culture.