The Native Population of North America Before European Arrival

The estimation of the indigenous population in North America before the arrival of Europeans has been a subject of debate among scholars. Since there is no definitive record, several attempts have been made to calculate this figure based on various factors. In the early years of the last century, James Mooney of the Smithsonian Institution estimated the population of each tribe before contact, arriving at a figure slightly over one million, which clearly appears to be conservative.

In the late 1960s, Henry Dobyns, using depopulation rates, obtained estimates ranging from 9.8 to 12.2 million inhabitants. In 1983, he repeated his calculations, taking into account the environment's capacity to support the population, and arrived at a total figure of 18 million inhabitants. Other scholars, such as Douglas Ubelaker and Russell Thornton, also employed depopulation rates but obtained figures close to 1,800,000 inhabitants.

Today, Thornton proposes an estimate that hovers around seven million. It is possible that future analyses will yield a clearer consensus, but so far, most experts agree that the native population of North America immediately before the arrival of Europeans did not exceed ten million.

What is widely accepted by specialists is the devastating population decline of Native Americans due to diseases introduced to America by the early Europeans and Africans. Epidemic diseases wreaked havoc among the indigenous populations, which had no prior exposure to these diseases and, therefore, lacked immunity. The most deadly diseases included smallpox, influenza, and measles, which decimated entire communities. Between 1781 and 1856, four smallpox and whooping cough outbreaks reduced the population of tribes like the Arikara, Mandan, and Hidatsa, all of whom were farmers living in villages along the Missouri River in Dakota, from over 35,000 to less than 2,000 inhabitants. Diseases like typhus, scarlet fever, diphtheria, mumps, and cholera also took a heavy toll on indigenous populations.

Disease played a crucial role in the drastic decline of the indigenous population, although factors such as war, deliberate genocide, which included forced displacement, relocations, and famine, also contributed. Not all diseases were introduced accidentally: in 1763, the British military commander of Pennsylvania ordered the intentional delivery of smallpox-infected blankets to indigenous communities. Furthermore, until the late 20th century, some Indian Health Service doctors are reported to have sterilized indigenous women without their consent. The disappearance of traditional healing practices due to the destruction of ancestral ways of life also contributed to the decline.

Around 1900, the indigenous population had decreased to less than one million, making the recovery they experienced in the 20th century remarkable. This recovery was due in part to improvements in healthcare and the increase in fertility resulting from interracial marriages.

According to the 1990 U.S. census, the combined population of Native Americans, Eskimos (Inuit), and Aleuts approached two million. When adding the 740,000 Canadian natives, which include Indigenous, Inuit, and Métis, the total population of Native Americans in North America in 2000 approaches three million.

However, determining precise figures is complicated due to the difficulty of defining who is considered indigenous and who is not. The number of people self-identifying as indigenous has significantly increased. According to some estimates, nearly seven million Americans have indigenous ancestry, and the growing interest in native culture leads more people to recognize their roots. The Bureau of Indian Affairs uses a "blood quantum" system, which requires at least one indigenous grandparent to be considered "indigenous." However, tribes have their own criteria; some require at least "half-indigenous," while others accept an indigenous great-great-grandparent, and a few only require documentary evidence of indigenous ancestry.