The Peoples of the Northeast

The northeastern region of North America is characterized by its abundance of forests, lakes and rivers. It extends from the cold, steep land eroded by glaciers north of the Great Lakes and the San Lorenzo River, to the extensive, warm coastal plains of the Atlantic, including the Mississippi and Ohio valleys.

In the northern regions of this cultural area, where the enormous pine trees and picea forests of the sub-Arctic dominated the landscape, residents faced late frostbite and early freezes that jeopardized crops, such as corn, cultivated by their southern neighbours. Tribes such as the Ojibwas, Abenakis, Micmac, and other northern Algonquin groups led a nomadic life. They sailed in canoes of beetle bark through lakes and extensive waterway systems, following stations for hunting, harvesting and fishing.

The ancient ancestors of the southern tribes, who engaged in horticulture, probably shared a similar lifestyle. Highly mobile hunter camps have been discovered dating back to as early as 16,000 BC, a time when glaciations still covered the north.

In their travels, Algonquin speakers often built simple tipis or conical stores made of tree bark or animal skins. For summer and winter camps, which were more permanent and from where they went out to collect food, complex conical structures were erected of stacks covered with beech or straw bark, or animal skins, known as wigwams.

These communities in the northern forests depended on a wide range of vegetable foods, ranging from wild rice and lake grasses to strawberries. They also competed with bears for this food that grew on the slopes of the hills after the forest fires. The hunt was centered on animals such as deer and deer, who were seen as gifts of animal spirits and, at times, considered ancestors of hunters. The micmac, for example, erected stone prey, used branch fishing techniques to catch angels, and used open sea canoes to hunt marsopes.

Lifestyle and Cultural Development in the South of the Great Lakes

The need for seminomed life decreased south of the Superior and Erie lakes, where rich soils covered the solid rock, and the sturdy abets and piceas were replaced by pine trees and leafy trees. With longer summers and less severe winters, it became possible to grow maize, eggs and shrimp. Algonquin tribes such as the Illinois, Southern Ojibwas and Menominis developed a more stable way of life compared to their northern neighbours. This also applied to the winnebagos and other Sioux-speaking groups, as well as the delawars, wampanoags and other natives of the Atlantic coast.

Although hunting and harvesting remained important, especially for those engaged in the harvest of seafood and other marine resources, agriculture became the pillar of their lives. The importance of agriculture is evident in the mound-building crops that developed in the fertile river valleys around 500 B.C.E. The culture of Adena, who were initially hunters and gatherers, flourished in the Ohio valley thanks to the abundance of resources, allowing them to carry out complex rituals and ceremonies that were embodied in imposing mounds, such as the Great Serpent Hill.

A few centuries later, with the emergence of Hopewell culture in the same region, society became even more hierarchical and sophisticated. Unlike surrounding societies that were relatively egalitarian, Hopewell's culture focused its creativity on the social and religious elite. His legacy includes masterpieces in stone, ceramics, wood and metal, as well as a monumental complex of ceremonial mounds near the present-day city of Hopewell, Ohio, which gave the name to this culture. For about half a millennium, the inhabitants of Hopewell influenced the cultural life of the Middle West, from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico.

The Skin Exchange

In 1615, during his cohabitation with the Hurons, Samuel de Champlain observed that the women of the tribe grinded corn and exchanged it with their Algonquin neighbors in exchange for leather and other forest resources. Champlain and other European merchants also had an interest in leather, but their demand went beyond the small trade between tribes. They offered guns, knives, stoves, fabrics, alcoholic beverages and other commercial products in exchange for leather. The introduction of some of these European items had a negative impact on indigenous culture, as it emphasized hunting and displaced traditional manufacturing. Alcohol, in particular, had devastating effects on tribal life.

By 1635, the castor population had virtually exhausted in the territory of the Hurons, which led these tribes to obtain skins through trade with the nipissing and ottawas. However, the Iroquois also engaged in the leather trade and competed with the Hurons when their resources were exhausted. In 1649, the Iroquois attacked the Hurons and took control of the leather trade in the region.

By the mid-19th century, castor leather hats ceased to be a fashion in Europe, causing a drastic decline in demand for this product. In addition, in the forests of northeastern North America, the castor population decreased considerably.

The Lacrosse Game

Lacrosse is a sport practiced by many groups of North American Indians, known for its violent character and the physical contact between the two teams that are located at the ends of a large field. The name "lacrosse" comes from the French word "la crosse", which means "the rod." This name was coined by a 17th-century French missionary, who compared the curved sticks used by the players with the bishop's bow.

The game involves moving a wooden ball with a stick that has a net at the end, and the goal is to make the ball cross the poles of the goal of the opposing team, passing it between players as many times as necessary to it. During the first period of European occupation in the region, lacrosse matches used to take place between villages, and teams often consisted of up to a hundred players, with hundreds of spectators. It is important to note that lacrosse was more than just a game; the Iroquois, who are attributed to the modern form of Lacrosse, regarded it as a gift from the Creator and practised it ceremonially in events such as seeding and harvest rituals, as a way to honor spirits.

The Petroglyphs of Peterborough

In the vicinity of Lake Stony, in Peterborough County, Ontario, Canada, there is a fascinating archaeological site where ancient artists carved hundreds of images onto an outstanding white, crystal clear limestone wall. Per the unique appearance of the rock attracted these prehistoric artists. Over time, erosion has created a series of holes, cracks, and oaknesses that seem to sink into the depths of the underground world. During the spring, these characteristics become even more noticeable due to the dampened sounds of groundwater emanating from the ground. It is plausible that those who created these images would consider this place to be magical or hear the voices of spirits in these sounds.

Archaeological excavations in the ground and the remains found in some cracks have revealed fragments of ceramics and various stone tools. These artifacts suggest that the carpenters worked in this place for a period ranging from half a century to a millennium.

The site of Peterborough is exceptional due to the diversity of the images it contains. These range from figures of animals and birds to human representations, evoking similarities to the cave paintings and petroglyphs from other sites in the region. In addition, some of the images include large solar boats that surprisingly resemble Scandinavian sizes.

The Ojibwas refer to this place as Kinomagewapkong, which means "the rock that teaches." For indigenous peoples, Peterborough is a place of spiritual reflection and inspiration.

Today, these cave paintings are part of the Petroglyphs Provincial Park and are protected from erosion by an aluminum and glass building. The Ojibwa community is responsible for the maintenance and management of this archaeological site.

Using stone tools, Peterborough artists recorded more than nine hundred figures, including animals, humans, turtles, snakes, canoes and other images on the smooth, crystal clear limestone surface of the rock. However, centuries of freezing and unfreezing cycles have increased the erosion of the crystal surface, making the originally clear, well-defined images hardly visible today. To allow modern generations to appreciate its beauty and variety, archaeologists J. M. and R. K. Vastokas darkened the petroglyphs. Although the artists who created them remain anonymous, they are likely to have been ancestors of the Algonquin peoples, such as the Ojibwas, who still reside in the region. These cave paintings are a testimony to the rich artistic tradition of the Algonquins, as evidenced by the paintings extending through the vast rocky region known as the "Canadian Shield" and the sacred art engraved in beetle bark rolls by the Midéwewins.

One of the most notable representations in Peterborough is a boat that stands out from all traditional Aboriginal boats. The proa and the popa are elongated and curved upwards, while the mast bears the solar symbol. Similar ships that include celestial images are only found in Scandinavia.